"A man at the bus stop was invading my space... grabbed my arm... I used the wrist release i learned and i said loudly for him to leave me alone... he would have taken it further."

In Logan's (2019) study of stalking experiences and outcomes, she found that safety efficacy and perceived capability to handle the situation played a key role in the mental health outcomes for both men and women victims. Her research found that women being assaulted during the stalking and who had lower safety efficacy scores were significantly more likely to have depression. For men, she reported that lower safety efficacy scores were also associated with depression. Lower safety efficacy scores were also associated with anxiety for women, as was post-traumatic stress (PTS); which was associated with making major life changes (Logan, 2019). PTS was associated with lower safety-efficacy in men, as were frequent unwanted contacts. Lower safety-efficacy scores were also associated with ten or fewer days of poor mental health in both men and women.

Clanton (2004) reported in his research that students in a semester long karate and self-defense course reported reduced depression, perceived vulnerability, and likelihood of being attacked, while traditional judo was associated with decreased levels of aggression. However, some research conducted with a Tae Kwon Do class suggested that it could take one-two months to improve self-esteem (Clanton, 2004). Research has found that martial arts and self-defense training increase self-defense self-efficacy, interpersonal self-efficacy, and activity self-efficacy as well as global self-esteem. Martial arts teach concentration, relaxation, assertiveness, and direct and honest communication; thereby lowering feelings of vulnerability and increasing one's sense of control (Clinton, 2004). 

Clanton (2004) found that women received more benefit from self-defense courses than men. He hypothesized this was due to the perceived vulnerability and sense of control differences associated with assault. Women reaped more benefits from training. Clanton (2004, p.55) found no significant relationship between the fear of physical assault and self-esteem or any other measure for the males in his study. However, his research and the research we have found to date has focused on general population(s), particularly college age, therefore we cannot at this time say with any certainty that it can be applied to the stalking victim population, or to men generally. His results suggest that men's self-esteem is not impacted by their fear of victimization, but more research should be done on this, considering Logan's (2019) work. Clanton (2004) did find significant correlations between women's responses regarding their fear of physical assault and measures of their self-esteem and self-efficacy. After eight weeks, women's scores increased significantly more than men's, indicating they had decreased their fear of a potential attack and increased their level of self-esteem, unlike the men. Clanton (2004) suggests that perceived threat and perceived control are predictors of fear in physical and social situations, therefore these results support the possibility that men's and women's perceptions of fear may impact self-esteem differently.

Feminist theories emphasize fear of assault negatively impacts self-esteem, but is a method of social control (Clanton, 2004, p18). Vulnerability can cause one to use hostility as a coping mechanism, women who learn martial arts learn to be more assertive but less aggressive. At a University of Washington study, they found that women who participated in a six-week rape and sexual assault prevention course were able to not only defend themselves but "felt more effective as people" (Schwarz, n.p., 1997). These courses teach women how to use their voices as a "weapon for resistance," but most importantly, is the "perception that you have the skills to take care of yourself" and "keep the situation from escalating into violence" (Schwarz, n.p., 1997). These programs utilize a "personal empowerment framework" which have positive effects that ripple out into other aspects of one's life, such as body positivity and assertiveness (Schwarz, np, 1997). The reason these ripple effects may exist is the importance and usefulness of these skills to the individual.

It is worthwhile to note, parallel research was conducted on firearm training. While women gained proficiency with the firearms, these positive mental health effects were not seen, including regarding their self-confidence (Schwarz, np, 1997).

Advocates of self-defense training contend that it empowers women to resist assault including fighting, fleeing, and using verbal resistance, which do not limit their freedom but do reduce the likelihood of physical injury (Hollander, 2014). Research has found that women who avoided rape were almost twice as likely to have self-defense training. Hollander's (2014) study followed a group of women for 10 weeks. The classes were focused on sexual assault and included discussions of stalking, stopping assaults, and protection. These used the "Assess, Acknowledge, Act" model, with techniques chosen that were appropriate for female bodies. Women who participated in the self-defense course reported fewer sexual assaults than other students during the subsequent year, and those assaults were less severe. Additionally, the self-defense group reported an increase in self-confidence and self-efficacy regarding all three types of potential assailants: strangers, acquaintances, and intimates, compared to the control group (Hollander, 2014). Furthermore, the self-defense group reported a significant increase overall in their self-defense self-efficacy. Overall, the self-defense group reported fewer attacks. This suggests that women changed their emotional responses to assaults as well as their behavioral patterns making them less likely to be victimized or targeted. They reported more assertiveness, which deters unwanted attention. Women participating in self-defense classes were taught warning signs of assaults, to be clearer about their desire for further interaction, and were more vocal. They are more likely to recognize and report incidences of sexual assault due to the feminist nature of these courses which go over the legality of all types of rape and reporting procedures (Hollander, 2014).

Women have the option and ability to learn to defend themselves. It can be empowering, as well as helping them regain security, a sense of control, teach skills, improve mental health and physical fitness. However, it is not a woman's responsibility to "prevent" violence, perpetrators have to be held accountable (Hollander, 2014).