Researchers and professionals too often see stalking as a gendered crime (Lyndon, et al., 2011). However, Maran, et al. (2020) found men suffered as many consequences as women. Research suggests the legal definition of stalking, including the "fear" criteria (what we refer to as the 'fear factor') causes some of the widest research differences among genders (Lyndon, et al. 2011; Spitzberg, et al., 2010). In a meta-analysis of 274 studies, Spitzberg, et al., 2010, compared to the 28.66% of female victims, they found that 13.92% of males were also identified as victims. They went on to specify that in college environments, men report stalking at a rate of 18%, and general populations 12%, meaning the ratio of stalking is approximately 2:1 overall. Finally, Langhinrichsen-Rohling (2012) proposes gender interacts with stalking in a myriad of was including the context in which the behavior occurs, the relationship status between the victim and perpetrator, and the victim and bystander(s). These factors are important in considering male (identifying) victims and their similarities and differences.
"[M]en who meet the legal definition of a stalking victim [are] significantly less likely to define themselves as stalking victims than their female counterparts," (Spitzberg, et al., 2010, p., 263). Maryland's stalking law, like many laws around the U.S. require a victim to articulate "reasonable fear." This emphasis on fear, however, is a hindrance to male (identifying) victims who are less likely to respond with fear (Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 2012).
E.E.O.C. v. Prospect Airport Servs., Inc., 2010, n.p.
The average stalking campaign against male victims lasts more than double that of women (24 weeks v. 12 weeks) (Maran, et al., 2020). Another meta-analysis found that men reported being pursued an average of 5.5 months longer (Maran, et al., 2020).
In Maran, et al. (2020) they found the duration of the stalking correlated with specific types of stalking behaviors, however, these findings were not identified among female victim groups.
Maran, et al.'s (2020) study found the duration of the stalking correlated with fear (r = .34, p = .003) and irritation (r = .29, p = .010) for male victims.
Men (identifying) victims reported fewer contacts compared to female victims (Maran, et al., 2020).
Specific stalking behaviors against male victims have been found to be
However, men are less likely to consider these acts stalking, 7% of men picked 10 of the 42 possible behaviors v. 92% of women who picked 32 (Maran, et al., 2020).
Maran, et al. (2020) found in their study male victims experienced 5.7 different behaviors v. women who experienced 6.
When fear is not a requirement, male (identifying) victims report stalking at a range from 2.9%-23.5% (Lyndon, et al., 2011). However in another meta analysis conducted by Spitzberg, et al. (2010) of 274 male victims studied where fear is included, the victimization rate was found to be to 13.92%.
A myriad of studies suggest that male victims may not experience, or report "fear" in the same way as female victims. However, there is some suggestion that male victims may experience specific stalking related fear, as opposed to general fear (Maran, et al., 2020). Additionally, male victims may experience state and train anger as well as minimal general anxiety (Maran, et al., 2020).
Men reported emotional symptoms more frequently 2.6 (s.d. = 1.86) v. 2.2 (s.d. = 0.74) reported by women.
Only apprehension and fear were experienced less frequently.
Maran, et al. (2020) identified that in male stalking victims a positive correlation between the variety of stalking behaviors and emotional consequences (r = .27, p = .018). - This is different from female victims, whose consequences come from coping strategies.
Research suggests male stalking victims are less prone to ask for help. Men have a lesser tendency to move outward (seek social support) (Maran, et al., 2020).
Male victims on average adopted 3.2 (s.d = 2) coping strategies compared to women who adopted 2.4.
Men were more likely to "answer to and reason with the stalker." They were also less inclined to collect evidence and devise safety plan(s) (p. 9). The duration of the stalking, however, correlated with specific coping strategies such as
Duration of stalking for men correlated with
The perpetrator has been identified as an acquaintance in 70% of cases with the motive of establishing or re-establishing a relationship (Maran, et al., 2020).
Male (identifying) victims were found to be half as likely as women (13.4% v. 27.8%) to contact police during stalking victimization (Maran, et al., 2020). Research has suggested this is due to the prevalence of female-stalking-perpetrators against male-victims. Victims reported they feared not being believed or had concerns of being taken seriously (Maran, et al., 2020).
Gender can influence police involvement as well as the perception of the danger posed the perpetrator. (Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 2012). Lyndon, et al. (2011) identified that male stalking victims received fewer resources from law enforcement regarding protective services compared with women. Male victims are also less likely to have their stalkers prosecuted.
E.E.O.C. v. Prospect Airport Servs., Inc., 2010, n.p.
Female stalkers may not be as uncommon as many believe, community samples indicate that between 11%-22% of stalkers are women, and that the seriousness of such accounts should also not be understated (Mullen, et al., 2009).
Gross, 2012, p. 116
Research conducted on female stalkers suggests demographic variables are similar. However, some research suggests female stalkers are less likely to have violent offense histories or criminal histories (Mullen, et al., 2009).
Mental health histories of female stalkers does not differ substantially from other stalkers, however, the rate of psychosis at the time of the stalking offense was significantly higher among female stalkers. In addition, co-occurring substance use was significantly lower compared to male stalkers, though other research has found higher substance use (Mullen, et al., 2009).
Female stalkers were found to target primarily professional contacts in this study, who were known to them, or others known to them (95%), compared to males (40%), (Mullen, et al., 2009). Additionally, female stalkers were equally likely to target men and women victims, some have found they target a few more men (67%), as opposed to men who pursued women almost exclusively (91%). While some cases of same-gender stalking did occur, few cases involved "homosexual motives," (p. 137).
Motivation for most female stalkers was intimacy-seeking, though not all were sexual in nature. Some were the desire for friendship, or "motherly alliances" (p. 137). Female stalkers also displayed rejection, resentment, and incompetent-suitor patterns. However, no female stalkers in their study fit the pattern of predatory.
Research finds that female stalkers are no less likely to threaten than male stalkers, and they are equally likely to vandalize personal property. However, female stalkers are less likely to physically assault their victims (Mullen, et al., 2009).
With the exception of phone calls, which are preferred by female stalkers, and "following" which is preferred by males, methods of intrusion are found to be mostly equivalent. Duration of stalking was also found to be similar among groups (Mullen, et al., 2009).
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